Warning: This is unlikely to be all that interesting to any of you. ;)
Key Findings
·
“Water for food” is not necessarily synonymous
with “water for food security”
·
Countries with similar geological conditions
face very different geopolitical realities; national water policies and
agricultural motivations reflect this
·
Water policies and research should seek to
understand “water for food” and its connections with economics, the
environment, and securities more broadly
Purpose of and
Motivation for Brief
Agriculture accounts for 70% of the world’s “blue”
freshwater use. Understanding how and why this amount of water is allocated for
agricultural production is critical in properly managing water resources.
This policy brief will examine how water for food is
understood and utilised in national water policies. Using comparative analysis
with Egyptian and Israeli case studies, the brief will explore how different
geopolitical realities can create drastically different motivations for
agricultural water allotments.
Egypt and Israel were selected as case studies for
geopolitical considerations. Both are arid or semi-arid, yet devote a great
proportion of national water resources to agriculture. Each is a downstream
riparian but also a regional hegemon. However, the states have drastically
different national cultures and priorities. Israel’s status as a regional
“outcast” in many ways and the recent political turbulence in Egypt – motivated
partially by food issues – make the countries particularly interesting for
study.
The Web of Water
Security
Connections between water, food, energy, and climate are
increasingly highlighted in academic research and policymaking. A number of
nexuses have arisen in discourses surrounding these issues, the most popular of
which is the “Water-Energy-Food Nexus”, a concept taken up by numerous think
tanks, environmental organisations, international bodies, and governments. More
recently, Mark Zeitoun has suggested a “Global Web of National Water Security”,
a conceptual tool meant to draw attention to the strong but often unrecognized
links between biophysical and social processes surrounding water resources.
Zeitoun’s web places “water security” at the centre with six connected spokes:
national security, water resources security, food security, energy security,
climate security, and human/community security.
The Web of Water for
Food
This policy brief builds on Zeitoun’s web, making the
water-food linkage the centre of its own web. The “Water for Food Web” suggests
that agricultural water is not necessarily water meant primarily for food as
food itself. Instead, national policies around water and agriculture build on a
variety of motivations and uses of agricultural production and food products.
·
National
Security. Water and agricultural development have strong ties to nation
building. Food production may reduce dependence on external actors and promote
internal stability.
·
Economic
Security. Agricultural products may be used in trade. Agricultural sectors
can grow local economies and industries. Internal food production may improve
resilience to global food price shocks.
·
Energy
Security. Crops may be used for biofuels. Food production may free up money
previously spent on food for oil, natural gas, etc.
·
Climate
Security. Agricultural development may increase adaptation possibilities
and teach countries to better manage water. Internal production may protect
against or make a country more susceptible to climate shocks.
·
Human
Security. Food may be meant to feed people for their own sake. Agricultural
production may provide local jobs.
·
Food
Security. Food production may be meant “simply” for food security. But food
security for urban elites or for rural populations and for the sake of
individuals or the nation is not always clear.
Egyptian and Israeli
National Water Policies
Current
Egyptian policies are muddled by government instability; research reflecting on
previous policies may thus be particularly relevant in informing possible
future steps. This brief is based on the 2005 “Integrated Water Resources
Management Plan” and “Water for the Future: National Water Resources Plan 2017”,
the latter of which was supported by the Dutch Government. Stated major
concerns are water for people; water for food production; water for industry,
services, and employment; developing a strong institutional framework; quality,
supply, and demand management; protection and restoration of vital ecosystems;
and cooperation with Nile Basin countries.
The
State of Israel has a nationalised water sector. This brief is based on the
2002 “Transitional Master Plan for Water Sector Development in the Period
2002-2010” and 2011 “Long-Term Master Plan for the National Water Sector”,
which focus on action in uncertain conditions; system management; consumption
management; water and agriculture; urban water systems; improving
institutional-organisational structures; quantities and qualities of water; minimising
harm to ecological system services; and balancing economic, social,
environmental considerations.
Water for Food in
Egypt and Israel
For
both countries, increasing populations and rising demands are the major concern
in national water policies. However, both Egypt and Israel heavily
prioritise agricultural development and work to ensure adequate water resources
for the sectors. In Egypt, agriculture accounts “for about 95% of the total net
demand” (IWRM 20). Israel’s “Long-Term Plan” explicitly states that, once the
water sector has stabilised, “the amount of water for agriculture will not be
limited and will fully match the needs of the sector’s development” (44). But
even though both states have a strong emphasis on water for food, the two
states’ motivations for allocating water to their agricultural sectors vary.
The word clouds above highlight the most commonly used words
in Egyptian and Israeli National Water Policies, illustrating the two states’
different approaches to and priorities in water management. “Agriculture” and
“nature” both appear in Israel’s; “land” and “agricultural” are relevant
keywords for Egypt. “Food”, however, is not one of the most common words. The
possible disconnect between agriculture and food in national water policies can
be explored through the “Water for Food Web”.
Water for Food…
…for National
Security
Egyptian national security has recently been rather shaken
by protest and the overthrow of President Hosni
Mubarak. National unrest in the past decade has been motivated partially by
global food price spikes over grain, a staple of the Cairene diet. The Egyptian
government has since prioritised food self-sufficiency to protect national
security against global shocks and has made multiple statements on the need to
expand agriculture through irrigation.
Israeli policy documents regularly call agricultural development
a “national objective”. “Making the desert bloom” was central to Zionist
policy. Agricultural success was seen as a way to legitimise the Jewish claim
to the land. The state continues to employ its technical expertise in
irrigation and water efficiency technologies for diplomatic relations. In this
way, water for food has been water for nation building more than water for food
itself.
…for Economic
Security
Egypt’s IWRM Plan recognises that agriculture is a “major
economic activity in Egypt”, accounting for nearly 15% of its GDP. Egypt has
been more susceptible than most countries to food price shocks; internal food
production is thus partially a mechanism for ensuring economic resilience.
Israeli agricultural produce is marketed throughout Europe
and is one of the country’s links to countries, something sorely needed for a
country that is not recognised by many of its neighbours. Israeli policies of
agricultural water pricing promote economic sustainability for the sector.
…for Energy Security
Egyptian national water policies say virtually nothing about
the link between water for food and energy. For Israel, energy is one of the
few issues present in this web that does not come under the direct control of
the National Water Authority. A great deal of energy is used in water for food:
Drip irrigation and other agricultural technologies are energy-intensive.
…for Climate Security
In Egypt, food industries are one of the major contributors
to water pollution. Water for food is thus considered by the state as a climate
security issue primarily through the lens of environmental sustainability
concerns, and the link between water for food and climate security is a
negative one.
In Israel, the bulk of the water used in agriculture is
marginal water from brackish sources. Israeli policy documents also speak of
the need for water to help preserve the land’s fertility. For this country,
then, the water for food-climate link is a more positive one.
…for Human Security
Egyptian water policies consider rising populations and
improved standards of living, indicating that water for food is considered, at
least partially, an issue of human security. Policy documents also speak of the
desire to improve farmers’ incomes, raising another consideration in water for
food.
Israeli documents discuss the need to care for rural communities.
Population growth, primarily from immigration influxes, is heavily considered.
…for Food Security
Egyptian water policy documents explicitly mention “food
security” as often as they do “water security”; indeed, food security is listed
as the first challenge “facing
the Government of Egypt as pertaining to water resources management” (IWRM 19).
Food security is also stated explicitly in Israeli documents as a major policy
motivation, but the state is richer and thus more able to depend on food
imports if needed.
The links between water for food and food security are
obvious in many ways, but consideration is needed of the myriad number of ways
states employ “food security”. Food
security for whom and to which ends?
Conclusions and
Recommendations
•
Agricultural water can contribute a more than
food to a state’s national security
•
States facing different geopolitical conditions
may have different motivations that lead to similar policy actions (e.g., Egypt
and Israel both prioritise water for their agricultural sector but for
different reasons)
•
The new Egyptian government must balance an
increasing population’s freshwater needs with agricultural demand and a desire
for food self-sufficiency
•
The Israeli government must better consider the
costs of energy used in agriculture as well as water allocations
•
Policymakers should understand and act on the
ways agriculture and food production impact other sectors
•
Researchers must consider the nuances of states’
motivations in agricultural water allotments
References:
AbuZeid,
Khaled. “Executive Summary: Policy Analysis of National Water Plans in Selected
Arab Countries.” Available online at water.cedare.int.
Arab
Republic of Egypt. June 2005. “Integrated Water Resources Management Plan.”
Available online at worldbank.org.
Arab
Republic of Egypt. January 2005. “Water for the Future: National Water
Resources Plan 2017.”
CIA. “The World Factbook.” Accessed online 13 February 2013 at
<https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/eg.html>
and <https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/is.html>.
Rejwan,
Ariel. April 2011. “The State of Israel: National Water Efficiency Report.”
Available online at water.gov.il.
State
of Israel. March 2012. “Master Plan for the National Water Sector: Main Points
of the Policy Paper.” Available online at water.gov.il.
State
of Israel. June 2002. “Transitional Master Plan for Water Sector Development in
the Period 2002-2010.” Available online at gwri-ic.technion.ac.il/pdf/wcom/master.pdf.
State
of Israel. July 2011. “Long-Term Master Plan for the National Water Sector:
Policy Document Version 3.” Available online at water.gov.il.
World Bank. Country Data.
Accessed online 13 February 2013 at
<http://data.worldbank.org>.
Zeitoun,
Mark. 2011. “The Global Web of National Water Security.” Global Policy 2 (2).
